Relationships Between Risk And Criminology

Relationships Between Risk And CriminologyExplore the relationship between jeopardize and criminology. To what extent, if any, admit ideas about gamble influenced our c at one cadencepts and attention of criminal offence? This essay lead seek the relationship between attempt and criminology. In doing so, it will examine arguments surrounding a sophisticated day friendship of risk, to demonst range a strong inhering connecter between the two. This argument will show the direct link by grittylighting how offense bar approaches seem to promise and carry away the opportunities for shame. It will shown how arguments and the foundations of risk communication (Beck, 1992 4 Denney, 2005 82-103) collapse alleviateed shape the modern day inspect of shame management, by presenting workouts formulated from a perspective of risk management. other(a) theoretical attempts to crime management, as suggested by Foucault (1977), revolve around the individual where rehabilitation o r conformity is obtained from the individual via reassures, such as superintendence (Denney, 2005 114-6). Prisons be particularly relevant, where Foucault progresses theses ideas of attempting to regulate the individual into an accepted behaviour. Foucault (1977 25) was suggesting that society had develop technologies of power which were beca role engagementd to discipline and punish individuals who strayed from what society felt tolerable.Furedi (2002 12) estatesan enlightened society recognizes that human beings need to take risks and that in so doing, they will sometimes experience an adverse outcome. Risk is part of life and a society that adopts the view that preventing injury is an end in itself will put on to ban a variety of creative and challenging activities.By offering this interpretation, Furedi was accepting that we live in a risk society as described by Hardy (2006 41) as technical factors outweigh tender ones and risk abstract is increasingly developed in r elation to technological domain and thereof demonstrates how technology has been practiced in society to determine risk indoors that society. Thus offering march of racy risk argonas utilising insurance models, as endorsed by the Home Office, to construct crime reduction strategies. OMalley (2009b) excessively highlights that risk society is an integral part of modern day life and connects risk management techniques to most problems, including criminology.OMalley (2003 449) eludes to the fact that there has been a noniced shift from crime management of individuals where behaviour control was the kingpin, order of payment on actuarial and insurance based approaches. Cohen (1985 82) was the first to highlight the fact that there was a rapid change to crime ginmill involving situational crime taproom, which composite mapping out opportunities for crime and reducing the risk of its occurrence. Feeley and Simon (1994 175) view risk as the white plague of statistical models o f prediction to reduce harm, whilst Rose (2000 322) claims that risk involves the use of non-statistical models to minimise risk based on models of uncertainty. Criminologists appear to favour a mixture of both since Haggerty (2003 193-194) points out that crime prevention techniques seem to involve the management of risk with little reference to statistical models only involves encouraging members of the association to keep a watchful eye over their surroundings, i.e. Neighbourhood Watch. Risk is viewed by people in many different fashions for example, victims view risk in terms of the fear of crime a factor becoming to a greater extent focused by the Government and the actual risks that a criminal is prepared to take in order to achieve their goal or reward.OMalley (2009a 2) highlights two radicals published in the 80s The Floud Report (1982) and the Greenwood Report (Rand Corporation 1982) which brought in a radical approach to crime management by recommending that risk considerations should be embedded in to the Criminal Justice form. OMalley (2009a 2) writes that recommendations from the Floud Report included implementation of protective sentences which he argued could restructure risk and would not focus on the individual but on the size of the community most at risk from the offender. Likewise, he states that the Greenwood Report argued that the use of statistical models to identify high risk offenders would be an efficient way to allocate longer sentences in order to minimise the risk they present to the community. The resultant was that a few Criminologists (Cohen, 1985 Feely and Simon, 1992 OMalley, 2003) began to shift from correctional theories to develop predictive models to manage crime. Feeley and Simon (1994) pushed the idea of actuarial justice for decisions on sentencing durations by displacement due to incapacitation, thusly managing the offender via the Criminal Justice System. A working example of this is the productive Prior ity Offender (PPO), where an individual is categorised and then receives enhanced attention via the Criminal Justice system, (Home Office, 2008). Generally, this approach has been met with criticism (Rose, 2000 333) where predictive models may criminalise and alter individuals who may not re-offend. There is also a danger of creating tho offenders via the labelling theory (Vold et al, 2002 210-216 Newman and Marongiu, 1997 158-9). Both the American three strike rule and fact that deep down the UK convicted sex offenders must inform the Police of their address in order to be risk managed signalled a move deep down the Criminal Justice System where risk estimate was a part of the whole process. Baumann (2000 208-10) identified the use of risk management inwardly the penal system creating two separate groups the high risk ones who are not given much rehabilitation and the lower risk groups who are viewed with high suspicion regarding their ability to reform and are then excluded from society. Feeley and Simons (1994) research goes a long way to corroborate Baumanns position as it found that predictive models of actuarial justice appeared to target Black and Hispanic working class people in America. Risk management within the Criminal Justice System attempt to minimise the opportunity for criminals to re-offend. As part of risk management, the UK Government has expanded its Protective Services and ensures that agencies work closely together in order to manage specific risk offenders. The probation Service leads DMAPP and CMAPP meetings where an offender on licence can be judged to be a risk to the community and if so may have some draconian powers utilised to restrict and control them.As pointed out by OMalley (2003 450) situational crime prevention is not pertain with causes of crime and does not encroach on rehabilitation or incarceration of the offender. Instead, it is concerned with how to manage the risk of crime. OMalley recognises the actuarial char acteristics of situational crime prevention is more aligned with neo-conservative, rationalist and the New Right whose beliefs are concerned with population management, appendd penalisation for offenders and displacing the risk to help reduce the fear of crime and enhance societies economic status. Previous theories identified opportunities such as open windows as a high crime risk, situational crime prevention goes further and introduces the concept of the offender having a rational choice (Vold et al, 2002 203). Cornish and Clarke (2003 43) allude to prompts and suggest that situational cues are what can innovation criminal behaviour. Therefore, whilst situational crime prevention is concerned with risk management, it introduces the concept that the offender chooses to offend for specific reasons. Rational choice (Vold et al, 2002 203) suggests that the offender weighs up the risks associated with committing the offence against the benefits from successfully completing the act ions to see if the crime is worth committing. Therefore, OMalley (2003) proposes that actuarial justice draws heavily from rational choice theory by doubting the reasons for the offence and constructs the individual as abstract, universal and rational (OMalley, 2003 451). In the same way that individuals feel they have a right to freedom, rational choice allows such freedoms to do good and therefore when an individual chooses to do harm, then they must be judged accordingly.Foucault noticed that the Criminal Justice System was created with a notion that there were other factors responsible for crime, thus reducing the opportunity for responsibility (Foucault, 1977 252). OMalley (2003 451) maintains that the criminal abstract, using an arterial justice framework, the issue of responsibility and its place within the Criminal Justice framework is once again prominent and matched by the New Right school of thought of punitive and just deserts sentencing framework. Incapacitation seems to be the main argument used by supporters of situational crime prevention because they feel it removes the offender from the opportunity of committing further crime and indeed the prison population in the UK and America are at an all time high. Race, class, gender are not routinely a considered factor within situational crime prevention and when they are, OMalley (2003) statesIf bothered with at all, they are taken to be predictive of behaviours, not explanatory of meaningful actions (OMalley, 2003 452).Situational crime prevention brings the victim back to the centre of crime management and criminal justice techniques, placing public safety at the forefront. Although situational crime draws from rational choice theory to explain the behaviour of the offender, it does the same for the victim. This model is about the victim also taking a lead parting and being part of the crime prevention model by being aware of any vulnerabilities they are exposing by the surroundings or their act ions. This thinking, as proposed by Cohen and Felson (1979) are the foundations of Routine Activity Theory. They claim that criminology backbreaking on the offender and paid little attention to the criminal act itself. They increased the argument that life-style changes, such as employment, leisure and education influenced the occurrence of crimes and that individuals needed to evaluate these risks and suffice rational decisions, thus making them less wish wellly to be targets. Cohen and Felson (1979 593-7) concentrated on the location where the crime actually occurred and the surrounding conditions that contributed to making the crime viable. Routine activity theory articulates that a crime can only befall when one or more criminals are motivated and the individuals see an opportunity to commit the crime. The associated argument that managing risk is part of routine activity theory further supports the fact that the criminal must be able to observe few preventative barriers th at would make the commission of the crime unsuccessful. From these arguments, Cohen and Felson (1979 588) highlighted that changes in the way property and valuables are dealt with would have an impact upon the opportunity for crime. The impact of risk psychoanalysis, according to Cohen and Felson (1979 588) is significant, as the risk of crime can be reduced by implementing preventative measures which make the commission of the crime unattractive to the criminal. Smith, Clarke and Pease (2002 75) highlight research that shows crime prevention initiatives often have anticipatory benefits. These benefits broadly surround change, but are finally connected to communication a risk to the potential offender.These principle ideas on managing risk have had a tremendous influence on how crime is policed. Interestingly, Felson (1987) all-encompassing his application of routine activity theory to include white collar crime and organised crime. With the development of situational crime preve ntion Felson (1987) hoped to prevent crimes that were caused by changes in routine activity. Situational crime prevention sees the offender calculating the risks associated with committing the crime, for example, the likelihood that they will not be apprehended. By causing this, the consequences are a reduction in crime by reducing the opportunities. Therefore the risk considerations for both the victim and offender are significant in crime prevention strategies such as improved thoroughfare lighting (Farrington and Welsh, 2006 209-224) and the installation and use of closed circuit television (CCTV) (Welsh and Farrington, 2006 193-208), together with more police patrols (Poyserm, 2004). Policing is increasingly using situational crime prevention strategies and techniques through risk assessment to study crime patterns and implement intervention. As part of the analysis, police use crime entropy together with environmental and social factors in vulnerable areas to identify who are likely targets and for what reasons. By utilising these techniques they are able to develop bespoke crime reduction strategies for that specific problem. Hamilton-Smith and Kent (2005 423-5) explain have situational crime prevention techniques have been tailored to target dwelling burglary. They recognise and acknowledge that there have been many models developed to help achieve the reductions and management, but specifically highlight a recognised model by Cornish and Clarke, which is called the 25 techniques (Hamilton-Smith and Kent, 2005 423 Cornish and Clarke, 2003 42).Jones (2005 471) utilises the Oxford English Dictionary (1989) to give a suitable definition of surveillance, which appears quite appropriateWatch or guard kept over a person, etc., especially over a person, a prisoner or the like often, spying, supervision supervision for the purpose of control, superintendence. of devices, vessels, etc., used in military or police surveillance.Modern crime fighting techniques have positively developed from new forms of surveillance, starting with the prison which was the focus of Foucaults (1977) gaze and saw authorities monitoring the behaviour of prisoners in a structured manner. Braithwaite (2000 224) took inspiration from Foucaults (1991) reference to the term governmentality and suggested that the state had developed many technological models to manage the risk of deviant behaviour and ensure order is kept to that considered acceptable by general society. These technologies concentrate on the management of risk to control crime and maintain social order. These methods are usually directed at crime control in order to imply social order. The management of some technologies are governed by legislation such as Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, (OPSI, 2000), yet they can still be abused, which can taint public perception (Big Brother Watch, 2009).Rose (2000) progresses the theory of modulation where the behaviour of social members is contro lled by various agencies. Rose believes that this is also a form of risk management aimed at reducing deviance. Rose statesControl society is one of constant and never ending modulation where the modulation occurs within the flows and transactions between the forces and capacities of the human subject and the practices in which he or she participates. (Rose, 2000 325)The view of Rose supports that of Deleuze (1995 3-7) who states we live in societies of control. Basically, both commentators hypothesis that prison is no longer the sole place where deviance and risk are controlled, but where the use of digital technology are an important part of the risk assessment toolbox in order to monitor behavior and reduce crime through analyzing risky situations.Melossi (2000 296-7) argues that the representation of the criminal is not static and therefore surveillance methods and crime control have to change to reflect this contextual dynamism. It is for this reason that continuous risk assess ments of hot spots, vulnerable areas and criminal behavior is touted by supporters of situational crime prevention as necessary in order to maintain public order, protection of the public and to control the fear of crime.A relatively new concept in policing is the introduction of hotspots which are used to enhance the service and reduction of crime in a cost personnelive manner. Hotspots (Braga, 2006 179-190) are usually active urban areas, low level crime but high frequency or a pocket of heavy crime occurrence. Risk management is not without its issues and when things go wrong they can have a significant impact on the publics confidence with agencies designed to prevent such failings (BBC News, 2008 BBC News, 2010). The Police service is reacting and training from these and similar failings and by using risk management techniques has brought a new term in to their daily assessment process, this being People Susceptible to trauma (PSH). Sherman and Weisburd (1995 634) feel that strategic work around hotspots is more successful than general beat patrolling. They suggest that the police often do not have comely resources to adequately offer sufficient patrols, therefore by concentrating on hotspots, this will give the police a greater chance of observing the hotspot areas and increase the risks for the criminal, thus reducing their likelihood of committing a crime. This argument was supported by their research in Kansas, United States, where they god the influence of police presence in hotspot areas. They found that the increase in patrols in hotspot areas reduced crime which was attributed to criminals apprehension of being caught.Risk has also contributed to the development of community policing within the UK. The success of community policing is based on the ethos that individuals who belong to a community are more likely to be attentive to reducing crime opportunities in their area. It also encourages the community to work with the police to improve c rime prevention and their environment, such as lack of good way lighting, overgrown shrubs in alleyways and region Watch Schemes. Skogan (2006 29-31) proposes that community policing incorporates three factors that help police manage the risk of crime community involvement, problem solving and decentralization. By depending upon the public to provide study to help the police in order for them to reduce the risk of crime, it is clear that modern policing shows how important managing the risk of crime is. Community Forums, where the community members are invited to help set policing priorities and together with other agencies, help tackle crime is now well embedded in to all areas of the UK (Communities 2010). The application of the broken windows theory within policing has influenced crime management. According to the broken windows theory, consistent public disorder within a community that goes unchecked will lead to more and more unspoilt crime and a downward spiral of urban dec ay (Kelling and Coles, 1996 20). Drawing from situational crime prevention, the UK police encourage the community members to report litter, damage, graffiti and broken windows since it is design that if they are left unchecked this would contribute to the deterioration of society and contribute to crime.The increased use of CCTV is further evidence of risk management influencing crime prevention. The use of CCTV may deter crime due to the increased risk the criminal will be aware of (Brown, 1995 1-2). This point is extended by Edwards and Tilley (1994 12) who demonstrate that the use of CCTV reduces crime due to its ability to provide evidence to help convict the offender. Not only does it act as a crime deterrent, but it also acts as a sign for potential victims who are then more aware of the need for them to take preventative steps to reduce potential opportunities for crime. An example of CCTV being used as a risk management tool to reduce crime is in publicity and visibility of the cameras, such as in many public car parks and trains. Such use of CCTV has significantly assisted in the reduction of theft and robberies on the transport system (Laycock and Tilley, 1995 535).Hayden, Williamson and Webber (2007 298-304) present how Nottinghamshire police used risk assessment methods to identify youth offending and correlated post codes to highlight areas of high anti-social behaviour among young people in specific locations for targeting. They show how police in the UK employ the use of geodemographic classifications, alongside statistical and operational data gathered from the police crime reports, and analyze the data using GIS system. There has been a significant increase in the use of GIS in many parts of the UK to map crime and use spatial analysis to identify hotspots for many kinds of crime and therefore inform policing measures to counter these occurrences.The increased effort to manipulate environmental factors which could cause crime and to encourag e safer communities is directly cogitate to the polices use of risk management. Community crime prevention is a major part of social justice and community cohesion in the UK. The implementation of community prevention initiatives, such as Safer Cities, Safer Communities, Sure Start programmes are examples of how risk considerations have influenced crime prevention in the UK (Home Office, 2004). While they do not only employ a risk model, by rejecting socio-economic circumstances of offenders, they rely on risk management principles to identify areas which need policing and individuals who are at risk to commit crimes.Ekblom and Tilley (2000 377) highlight that the police concentrate on the origin of the offence and distribute resources accordingly to make committing an offence more complex for the offender, which is another example of how risk management has influenced crime reduction. Crime prevention technologies, such as electronic tags (Denney, 2005 128 McDougall et al, 2006 1 23-4) and how police have increased their technology to monitor receivers, demonstrates the modern day crime prevention strategies in identifying and managing various risks of crime to occur. Installing and maintaining adequate street lighting is a technique used to enhance the belief by the offender that they are more likely to be observed and apprehended. Painter and Farrington (1999 80-83) conducted research in to street lighting as a method of crime prevention which reported some success. Their case study of street lighting improvements in Stoke-on-Trent found that crime was reduced in areas which had lighting upgrades. The theory of using street lighting to control the commission of crime is based on the theory that the offender will form the opinion that there will be a reduced reward and increased risk of being caught. A knock on effect is reducing the fear of crime within the community which has the effect of improving community cohesion (Painter and Farrington, 1999 82). Li kewise, the introduction of electronic entry/exit systems to hotspot areas such as estate buildings and problematic car parks increases the publics ken and encourages them to burglar proof their dwellings and park their cars in garages as often as they can is evidence of risk management influencing crime control policy. The basic philosophy being that of reducing the appeal of potential targets to potential offenders.More recently, particularly after 9/11, risk management led crime prevention measures have contributed to intelligence led policing and how the crime authorities are able to prevent and respond to terrorism (Birkland, 2004 186-89). The speed in which the London bombers were apprehended demonstrates the successful use of intelligence led policing (Denny, 2005 136-138). Risk management strategies were effective in intercepting terrorist activities, especially via the use of CCTV. This is an example demonstrating that risk analysis of situational circumstances open to ter rorists for crime have assisted policing in this area. Intelligence led policing is informed by problem oriented policing which seeks to analyze crime patterns to minimize the motivation of likely offenders and also to analyze and assess the police response to crimes committed and their effectiveness. In this manner, the policing of crime is constantly being improved in response to changing environmental and motivational factors for crime (McGarrell et al, 2007 143).Despite this, critics such as Hobsbawn (1994 53) point out that increased risk assessments aimed to prevent situational crime has not reduced the crime rate. The UK is currently seeing its highest rate of prison population and this is expected to continue to increase further. One explanation for this increase in the recorded and detection of crimes is the rate of technological advancements, especially in relation to surveillance and intense policing. Hobsbawn (1994 570) deliberates that modern day society is now in the c risis decades, whereby disorganization has reached unthinkable excesses. Melossi (2000 314) contends that what we see today is the state increasing its control and risk technologies to temper the seemingly fractured and disorderly watched masses, while the imprisoned population increase and crime continues.It is clearly evident that there is now an intrinsic link between risk and criminology as the use of actuarial risk analysis methodologies is now an essential crime management tool within policing. Risk analysis in criminology is entrenched in the belief that man has a rational choice and the freedom to decide to do what is right or wrong. While risk methods have not being fully employed to secure incarcerations, measures such as Megans law in the United States the three strikes law, and the necessity for convicted sex offenders to report their addresses to police indicate that risk is being used to prevent crime. Furthermore, the prevalence of technologies such as CCTV, tagging, GIS to determine crime hot spots and increased street lighting initiatives demonstrate how actuarial models of risk are being employed effectively within criminology on a daily basis. Likewise situational crime prevention models are also being used on a daily basis to evaluate the risks of crime and reduce their opportunities.